American Promotionalism

Emergence of united States of the States itself was an epitome of certain ideological expressions i. e. liberty, fraternity, equality etc but the Statesn progress in the political, kindly, sparing and technological domains capacitated the American spirit to devise the new ideological patterns and modify the existing ones. The socio-economic growth of nineteenth century produced a phenomenon of liberal-developmentalism t get into contains the entire major thematic expressions of American ideology.This liberal-developmentalism ideology was a combination of American tactual sensations in their wanted ideals and these liberal beliefs were further augment by the American historical experience of extraordinary triumphs in the in the socio-economic sectors. All these particularors compelled the Americans to assume that their socio-economic model was of universal in nature and must be replicated at the universal level. So this ideology together with economic compulsions and mass produ ction set an impetus to export the American dream to other geographic locations.The roughly widespread concern for American foreign form _or_ system of governmentmakers remain that America has a peculiar destiny and that destiny must be turn outed universally. So this ideological underpinning found its expression in the strategic and operational mechanisms of American foreign policies during the last decade of 19th century and first half of the twentieth century. The culmination of World struggle II was the America was successful in inculcating their cherished ideals of democracy, capitalism, free great deal etc. in the new universe order. major tenets of American ideology Emily S.Rosenberg (1982) has recognized five underlying principle of the Liberal-Developmentalism ideology that emerged in the last half of 19th century. According to him, these major traits ar (1) belief that other nations could and should replicate Americas ingest developmental experience (2) faith in private free attempt(3) support for free and unclouded access for trade and set upment (4) promotion of free flow of information and culture and (5) growing acceptance of governmental use to protect private enterprise and to stimulate and regulate American fight in international economic and cultural exchange.(p. 7) These major tenets of American ideology were inculcated in the spirit and operation of all(prenominal) American foreign form _or_ system of government move. Whether it is annexation of Philippines or colonization of Cuba, these ideological parameters were at the helm of the affairs. Furthermore, this American mission to extend and export these ideological patterns universally worked under two motives. Religious zeal to spread the American version of Christianity with basic features of American socio-economic standards worked tight with secular and liberal intelligentsia.Evangelical sectors of American life intellection that Christianity was a prerequisite for mo dernization. So missionaries spread American ideals to different parts of the world. Secular sections of American intelligentsia were of the view that national advancements and spheric progress are the materialisation of a wholeness dream i. e. to propagate American ideology. Rosenberg (1982) asserts that it was the economic needs, Anglo-Saxon mission, and the progressive impulse that worked together with government endeavor to set an expansionist agenda and one of the motives for these designs was the spread of American ideology worldwide.Although there were differences over the question how to propagate Americanization but all these seems converging on a single point that center do not matter and it is all or so ends i. e. universalizing the American set. (Hunt, 1987) Acquisition of Philippines Acquisition of Philippines in the later part of 1890s generated frequently controversy across America over the issue. The nation was divided into two opposing groups i. e. imperialis ts and anti-imperialists.The imperialists favored the annexation due to their worldview based on ground realties and pragmatic necessities while anti-imperialists preferred to base their stand on idealistic and nostalgic views of mythic American past. Imperialist was of the view that in the changing world scenario, America should change it isolationist agenda and must assess its strength against the imperial powers of Europe in the international arena. The spirit of Manifest Destiny subsisted, and imperialists hankered after to expand the American authority and influence overseas.Their international view was further reinforced by the political, economic and strategic necessities. The anti-imperialists considered the annexation Philippines as an apparent violation of cherished American ideals and political traditions. The imperialist viewpoint can be located by having an in-depth look at the ideas and worldviews of the five who created the first genuine American imperialism i. e. b asin Hay, secretary of state under McKinley and Roosevelt, Alfred T.Mahan, a naval officer and military analyst Elihu Root, secretary of war under McKinley and Roosevelt, and was responsible for the management of the Philippines and Cuba Henry Cabot Lodge, the connive senator from Massachusetts, and Theodore Roosevelt. (Zimmermann X) These paragons of American imperialism considered that in the changing international political scenario, America should not reside in a policy of isolation but must try its foothold on various strategically important locations. The final goal of this policy might not be territorial gains but it should be strategic monopoly of the international politics and commerce.They further reinforced the idea that it is a defining moment in the way America is linked to the world. It will provide Americans and their leading self-confidence, a sense of their sustain power, and an abiding belief that they could shape international life according to their values. (Zimmerman I) In addition to these broad concerns, economic gains through the annexation of Philippines further shaped the worldview of the imperialists. President was moved by the touchstone of Asian trade (RTAP 52) and economic motives served a proper background for President McKinleys firmness of purpose to annex the islands.His McKinleys object was not a colonial empire but the minimum territory needed to obtain conquest of world markets, along with fetching of strategic points necessary to protect the conquest. (RTAP 52) Acting secretary of States William R. Day and Massachusetts Republican Senator Henry Cabot Lodge considered that the surpluses produced by American factories require huge markets in particular China. They were further influenced by Brooks Adams theory of center of money exchanges with a conception that now joined States is in a position to capture the world economy and rule it.Brooks Adam further said, We must learn new markets unless we would be visited b y declines in wages and by great industrial disturbances, of which signs lead not been lacking. The old theory of competing in foreign markets merely by the price of production is no longer predictable. So a navy, coaling stations and ports in the East turn over become essential condition in our times (RTAP 53) Beside the expansionist design and economic necessities, another factor that contributed to hold the entire archipelago under America was military necessity.After attaining military victories in the islands, it was inappropriate to vacate it for other powers to fight over it. It was a commonly held belief among imperialist that by placing A protectorate seemed unsuitable, since it would place heavy duties on the United States without supplying enough authority to carry them out and Most American believed that freeing the islands would result in internal chaos followed by a German, British, or Japanese takeoverNo country made a serious attempt to deny the Philippines to Unit ed States, but at least four might have collided headlong if Washington turned them loose.(RTAP 48) The anti-imperialist worldview was based on sentimental and traditional values of the past. Mostly, it was comprised of ethical and moral issues, Americas anti-colonial origin and past, its democratic traditions and cherished ideals of liberty and freedom. This altruistic viewpoint was further founded in the fear that these imperialist practices would eat at the traditional political fabric of America and would violate the cherished American ideals.Yet for all their passion, the enemies of the new imperialism seemed old-fashioned and out of touch. They looked back to a mythic American past, while Roosevelt and his friends laid claim to a bountiful futurethe anti-imperialists were on the losing end of historical change. (Zimmermann VIII) Additionally, anti-imperialists American worldview was molded by humanitarian and racial issues and anti-imperialists denounced that handle African A merican, the Filipinos would be treated the same way and would be negated the basic human rights provisions.This perspective was further supported by feminist stance that place Filipinos as the American women who are governed without their consent (RTAP 55) Some racial views suggested that assimilation of Philippines Eastern society would harm the social fabric of American society and would have negative effects on the future prospects of American social development. The imperialist position was based on concrete ground realities.Their basic agenda was expansionism or Americanism (as Roosevelt put it) but it also included the latent political, economic and strategic advantages for America whereas anti-imperialist worldview was grounded in outmoded idealism of the past. Imperialist viewpoint had more functional and beneficial motivation to annex Philippines as Republican Senator Lodge said in the senate, the enormous material benefits to our trade, our industries, and our labor dep endant upon a right dependency of this question (RTAP 54) Due this imperialist worldview, since 1898, Americas role in the world changed for eer.A country that had restricted her power and influence to the western hemisphere suddenly obtained a global reach that it would never relinquish (Zimmerman I) This cl early manifested that American annexation of Philippines were motivated by a combination of various factor in which economic necessities and airing of American dream i. e. to Americanize the peninsula were the chief documentarys. Spanish-American War Spanish-American was another important geo-strategic enterprise that label the emergence of U. S.as an important international player. Though war marked the beginning of American Imperialism, but war itself was not caused by the imperialist or expansionist designs of Americans. The war, as Prof. Blum puts it, grew out of the deplorable conditions in Cuba and seems unacceptable to an aroused popular sentiments in the United St ates. (Blum, p. 502) Another reno3wned historian Samuel Morison consider this coiffe a totally emotional enterprise and says, no war was ever more or emotional and less economic in motives (Morison, 1982.p. 801) But his assertion on another occasion seems appropriate as it depicts that American operate was purely based on their cherished ideals of democracy and liberty. He says, This was a closer and more personal war to Americans than either world war and was their own little war for liberty and democracy against all that tyrannical, treacherous, and fetid in the Old World. (p. 802) America found an apt time and place to exercise their ideological patterns.At last the nation distinguished manifested itself as a major world power and tried to play a vital role in the broad international arrangements for the fist time. It consciously became one of the tutors of the backward nation. Under such pro-consuls as General Leonard Wood, it tried to implant their own ideology in Cuban soil and undertook huge task of psychological and material reformation, reorganizations and development in Cuba. Rosenberg says that General Wood vowed to create a polity molded closely upon lines of our great Republic. Wood brought in a host of experts to reshape Cuba. Americans assumed direction of customhouses (the major source of government revenue), controlled the countrys finances, organized a postal service, established telephone and telegraphic lines, encouraged railroads and shipping facilities, built road, carried out sanitation projectsestablished schoolsand invited young York City Police to organize their counterparts in Havana. (p. 46) All these measures were intended to Americanize the socio-cultural and economic spheres, both at the ideological and material levels.Rosenberg further says that Cuba thus became a laboratory for methods of influence that fell brusk of outright colonialism. (p. 47) But history manifested that outright colonialism and subjugation of other nat ion is an outdated phenomenon. Furthermore, direct colonialization and annexation produced resentment and sentiments of hatred among the dominated nation. So it was a not a suitable mechanism to spread the American dreams and its various ideological expressions. So American spirit for exporting their cherished ideals devised new means to have control on the other geographical territories and to mold their society on American pattern.One of such mechanisms was Howard Tafts Dollar finesse. Taft wad enthusiastic roughly the military preparedness as his predecessor Roosevelt was. He therefore used the level of American investments to boost American diplomacy. Fearing the designs of Japan in China, Taft believed that if not check over Japan would not only seize the entire North China but also freeze out American trade in the farthest East. Consequently, he supported the construction of American financed railroads in Manchuria with a view to checkmate the Japanese and to preserve the Open Door in China.He encouraged the bankers to invest their surplus in foreign areas of strategic importance to the United States, especially in the Far East and the regions that might menace the Panama Canal. He feared hat if the American investors would not come forward, investors from rival powers like Germany would make the necessary investments and gain control over the seas. But as the American capital have never been interested in making investments in Manchuria, the State Department even brought pressure on the reluctant banks to invest in this region.This new policy of Dollar diplomacy that substituted dollars for bullets was complete violation of the liberal ideological tenets of freedom of investment. Furthermore this dollar diplomacy was prompted by strategic and imperialist concerns i. e. to check the quick growing power of Japan in China instead of promotional objectives. (Nearing and Freeman, 1925) This clearly manifest that sometime during the period 1890-1945, som e strategic and defense objective overweighed the higher objective of spreading American ideology abroad and creating a new socio-economic world milieu based on American ideals.Post World War I Foreign policy and it correlation with Nationalist ideology A case Study of Germany During World War I, United States was deeply involved in the affairs of the world and allied won he victory mainly due to the support of men, money and materials they got from United States. But after the war ended, most of the American people started feeling that it was folly on their part to have entered the war because in return for what America gave to the allies, she received nothing.Consequently there was a rethinking about the foreign policy. In the meanwhile Republicans came to power in America and enunciated a new policy. Harding, the Republican President said about the new foreign policy We seek no part in directing the destinies of the worldwe are ready to associate ourselves with the nations of the world, great and small, for conference and counsel, for suggestions of mediations, conciliation and arbitration but all commitment must be made in the exercise of our national sovereignty. (Harding, 1923) It would be wrong to attribute this policy of United States as a policy of isolationism or diversion from the American mission of promoting their national ideology abroad. It can more appropriately be described as the policy of cooperation without entangling alliances. This was due to the fact that new subtle and profound international mechanisms were available that can capacitate America to act as a promotional state.A South American writer, Manuel Ugarte has set the change in American policy in these words The United States inaugurated the system of annexing wealth, apart from inhabitants or territories, disdaining outward shows in order to arrive at the essentials of domination without a dead-weight of areas to administrate and multitudes to govern (Manuel Ugarte, 1923). Eco nomic activity was one such subtle mechanism that enabled America to spread its ideology of free trade and capitalistic mode of world commercial activity.Peace was an ultimate requirement for this mechanism to work. Secretary of Commerce Herbert Hoover speech about the American economic activity as a tool of American foreign policy provides an important assessment abut the directions pf American foreign policy. By contributing to peace and economic stability, by the loan of our surplus savings abroad for productive purposes, by the spread f interventions over the world, we can contribute to the elevation of standards of living in foreign countries in their relations to each other. (U. S Department of Commerce, 1926)At the time of assuming office as president, Harding announced that the league issue was dead as slavery and his administration would not lead United States into the League of Nations by the side door, back door or cellar door. Yet in spite of these pronouncements Harding e as well as Coolidge were compelled to involve their country more deeply into the world arena than ever before. But this time their involvement was on a more subtle and economic level. The first such involvement was in the affairs of Europe when it concluded a peace accordance with Germany.As United States has failed to ratify the treaty of Versailles, she was legally speaking still at war with Germany. In July 1921, Congress passed a resolution by which peace was declared. By this treaty America showed its willingness to pay for the German property seized during the war. This was a subtle move as leaving Germany in a state of devastation would had resulted in self-aggrandizing consequences for America and its ideological and strategic objectives in the region. Bolshevik Russia was a logical choice for Germany if American would have created a vacuum.This meant that instead of ideals of liberalism, democracy and free trade, communism and close-economy would had have encircled the German economy and socio-cultural life. Frank Costigliola (1984) says in this regard Pacifying and rebuilding Germany was integral to containing the Bolshevik revolution Bolshevik Russia represented both a symbolic and a substantive threat to the peaceful change alternative. Most American leaders viewed the Soviet Union as revolution incarnate, despite capital of the Russian Federations caution and conservatism.If Germanys political and economic structure collapsed, its people, American feared, might in desperation forged a Russian alliance to misdirect both Versailles and capitalism. Their very opposition to revolution led Hoover, Hughes, and other American leaders to combat the French policy of rigidly enforcing Versailles, which would only build up pressures for change (p. 96) So resolution of conflicts with Germany, provision of financial, technological and material answer to uplift the German socio-economic spheres were imperative for Americans.Although these were motivated by certain strategic and political goals but ideological consideration acted as underlying theme in the whole process. This is the reason that Hughes appealed to private experts and economists to come with new strategies and theoretical framework to help Germany in its economic turmoil. Export of popular American culture through various means also helped America to spread its influences and ideology abroad. One manifestation of this soft power i. e. American culture was its film industry. It helped greatly to promote the American ideology abroad and also had effect on trade.Edward G. Lowry as early as 1925 recognized this new factor in the international relationships that has caused the flutter (Lowry, 1925. p. 12) Costigliola is of the view that war weary generation of the West looked toward technologically advanced America for cultural models and America offered its own institutions and values, or what contemporaries termed Americanism (p. 98) America colonized the European throug h their soft power especially Films and tried to inculcate their own ideological patterns in the spirit and minds of Europeans.All these evidence and arguments clearly manifest that although American foreign relation was marked with political necessities and economic concerns but ideological underpinning remained an ultimate objective. The political and economic inevitabilities were also manifestation of these ideological underpinnings For example, to influence free trade was a material expression of liberalism that originated from public-private partnership in the American history.American concerns in Philippines, Cuba and post World War I apprehensions in Germany was al amalgam of ideological requirement with geo-strategic obligations but it is also a fact that Dollar Diplomacy in Tafts era in China was solely motivated by political needs. But all these method, use of military and non-military means, acquisition of territories, participation in world economic markets, internationa lization of American culture, disarmaments agreement, all were to construct a new world order according to American ideological patterns.South American writer, Manuel Ugarte has rightly summed up the whole phenomenon in these words The flexibility of North American imperialism in its external activities, and the diverse forms which it adopts according to the circumstances, the racial composition and social conditions of the people upon which its action is exercised, is one of the most significant phenomenon of this century(p. 139) References Blum, John Morton. The National Experience. San Diego Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. 1985. Connor, William P.United States annexation of the Philippines a reinterpretation. Kingston University of Rhode Island. 1972 Edward G. Lowry. Trade Follows the Film. Saturday Evening Post. 198. (November, 1925) 12-13. 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